The Patriarchal and Hierarchical Development of Western Civilization Research Paper

The Patriarchal and Hierarchical Development of Western Civilization - Research Paper Example The earliest human civilizations emerged in the great river deltas of the world, where the land was fertile, water was plentiful, and the rivers provided a means of easy transport. It was the ability to create food surpluses, store them and transport them around the local area that prompted early societies to give up a nomadic hunter gatherer lifestyle, and develop solid buildings for permanent residence. This created the leisure time for experimentation and the practical need for the development of technologies. In Mesopotamia the first writing tablets appear to have been made, and they record many lists and commercial details relating to the trade in basic goods. The famous Epic of Gilgamesh tells the story of a famous ruler who started out behaving badly towards his subjects, and particularly women. He has a lot of power, partly because of his status as heir to the throne of Uruk, but partly also because â€Å"Two thirds of him is god, one-third of him is human† (Tablet 1). He is descended from a goddess, and the story tells of his interactions with both human and godly characters. Goddesses play a big part in the plot, since it is the goddess Aruru who creates the special friend Enkidu for Gilgamesh, and the goddess Ishtar openly taunts him and tries to tempt him into a relationship with her. Gilgamesh is at the mercy of these divine figures, and they largely determine the course of his life. Gilgamesh refuses the advances of Ishtar, showing great strength of character, but in the course of the epic he comes to learn the lessons that his mother and the other goddesses have made every effort to teach him: love for others is of much greater worth than riches, fame and power. The power of the female to bring forth life, and the danger of amorous entanglements, remain key motifs in the story, and they serve to tame the faults of the male, and to counterbalance his arrogance and immaturity. The ruler Gilgamesh at the end of the epic reflects on the massiv e architecture of his city’s walls which encloses the well-ordered community that thrives under the care of the goddess Ishtar: â€Å"is not even (the core of) the brick structure of kiln-fired brick, †¦ one league city, one league palm gardens, one league lowlands, the open area of the Ishtar temple, three leagues, and the open area of Uruk it encloses† (tablet XI). The moral of the tale is that he finally accepts that he must settle down as an administrator in a settled urban community, rather than a wanderer in search of amorous or other adventure. In contrast to this the female characters in The Iliad, which dates from more than a thousand years later, are little more than goods to be passed from one powerful male hero to another, sometimes more or less willingly in matrimony, and sometimes as the spoils of war. In The Iliad notions of power are very much the main theme (Sherman, 2003, p. 47) The women like Helen of Troy are trophies, and their function is mor e symbolic than as an active participant in society. Homer stresses the heroic deeds of the warriors, and his western society values possessions, cities, and conquering other peoples. The patriarchal line of descent is stressed through the frequent repetition of lists of names and titles such as this: â€Å"After Diomede same the Atreidae/Agamemnon and Menelaus and then/the two named Aias, jacketed with brawn/then came Idomeneus and his

Biomedical engineering and IT Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Biomedical engineering and IT - Assignment Example Therefore, in the year 2004, homecare opted to approach biomedical repair segment in order to manage the homecare equipment so as to eliminate such enormous costs (Nestor, par. 4). The Biomedical formed for such tasks considered accepting the offer and took over the management of homecare equipments. Thus, the article focuses on all the relevant success that was achieved by its approach in managing the home care. Though, there being a number of challenges in the hospital environmental setting such as strict regulations and standards to be complied with as well as equipment safety, biomedical complied with all without compromise. Repair and maintenance cost were reduced to a greater extent and patients would receive better home care equipments that are well fit and structured for their requirements (Nestor, par. 5). The overall management services and reputation improved since the two entities were able to work hand in hand by offering efficient services to patients without constraini ng their financial position (Nestor, 60). The article focuses on the services offered by a military trained equipment technician who worked in the same position for over twenty years (Reginald, par. 2). The main objective of home care device as evidence by KDA’s new latest device home use initiative is to make sure that patients and caregivers safety are in a position to use complex medical services in their homes. Among the many provisions stated, the initiative has measures for an enhanced postmarked surveillance through subnet work of medical devices. This is an advance vent reporting program that merges over 350 healthcare facilities all over the country (Reginald, par. 5). The technician was able to lean about the home care professionals who work in that environmental setting and different equipments available. Some of the home care has a number of

Cigna Corporation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cigna Corporation - Essay Example CIGNA Corporation has several opportunities in its external environment, including market exchange rates, which, by being an International Corporation, it can take advantage of by getting higher earnings from regions with high exchange rates. There is also increased demand for healthcare, increased disposable income that would benefit CIGNA, ethical growth from an expanding population, and a growth in retirees who require increased levels of health care. The various threats that face CIGNA include the reduction of premiums due to decreased disposable income after the financial crisis, health care reform regulation that directs them to insure patients through using pre-existing conditions, and the global recession that has seen unemployment levels go up thus plummeting a number of premiums to be paid. The paper also evaluates internal factors that affect the operations of CIGNA Corporation, i.e. strengths and weaknesses. The strengths that are inherent in CIGNA Corporation include a s trong national network that helps build credibility, a comprehensive offering that attracts a large customer base, growing global operations that ensure less reliance on the local market, and a well-coordinated workforce that helps realize the potential of its employees. The weaknesses that CIGNA Corporation possesses includes unstable earnings in the healthcare industry, lower market share in Medicare products, a maturing/mature industry, increased competition in the industry, and uncertainty facing the industry.... The paper also evaluates internal factors that affect the operations of CIGNA Corporation, i.e. strengths and weaknesses. The strengths that are inherent in CIGNA Corporation include a strong national network that helps build credibility, a comprehensive offering that attracts a large customer base, growing global operations that ensure less reliance on the local market, and a well-coordinated workforce that helps realize the potential of its employees. The weaknesses that CIGNA Corporation possesses includes unstable earnings in the health care industry, lower market share in Medicare products, a maturing/mature industry, increased competition in the industry, and uncertainty facing the industry. The paper then performs a TOWS analysis that seeks to analyze how the corporation can leverage strengths to take opportunities, how it can use opportunities to improve weaknesses, how it can use strengths to stave off threats, and finally how they can defend themselves from threats that cou ld take advantage of their weaknesses. Four major strategies came out of this TOWS analysis including: Leveraging their market visibility to take advantage of increased demand for health care, Use ethnic growth and retiree growth to counter the lower market share in Medicare products, Use its growing international market to counter the economic slowdown in the US, Come up with strategies to retain and increase market share especially with advent of health care reform. CIGNA Corporation Business Strategy Cigna Corporation (Cigna) is a global health service company. The company offers variant insurance products under medical and accident cover throughout United States.  These services are sold through the company employees and selected groups.  Beyond, United States, the

Evaluating Strategic Management Essay Example for Free

Evaluating Strategic Management Essay The strategic management process result in decision that can have significant, long lasting consequences. In many organizations, strategy evaluation is simply an appraisal of how well an organization has performed. Strategy evaluation includes three basic activities: 1. Examining the underlying bases of firm strategy 2. Comparing expected result with actual result 3. Taking corrective action to ensure that performance conform to plan. Strategy evaluation is becoming increasingly difficult with the passage of time, for many reasons. domestic And world economies were more stable in years past, product life cycles were longer, product development cycles were longer, technological advancement was slower, change occurred less frequently, there were fewer competitors, foreign companies were weak, and there were more regulated industries. Other reasons why strategy evaluation is more difficult today include the following trends: 1. A dramatic increase in the environment ‘s complexity 2. The increasing difficulty of predicting the future with accuracy 3. The increasing number of variables 4. The rapid rate of obsolescence of even the best plans 5. The increase in the number of both domestic and world events affecting organizations 6. The decreasing time span for which planning can be done with any degree of certainty Four Criteria (Richard Rummelt in evaluating strategic management: †¢ Consistency Strategy should not present inconsistent goals and policies. Conflict and interdepartmental bickering symptomatic of managerial disorder and strategic inconsistency †¢ Consonance Need for strategies to examine sets of trends †¢ Adaptive response to external environment †¢ Trends are results of interactions among other trends †¢ Feasibility Neither overtax resources or create unsolvable sub problems †¢ Organizations must demonstrate the abilities, competencies, skills and talents to carry out a given strategy †¢ Advantage Creation or maintenance of competitive advantage †¢ Superiority in resources, skills, or position Nowadays, the strategy evaluation is become difficult because adjusting with the trends happened. There are some reasons for it: 1. Increase in environment’s complexity 2. Difficulty predicting future with accuracy 3. Increasing number of variables 4. Rate of obsolescence of plans 5. Domestic and global events 6. Decreasing time span for planning certainty a.Reviewing Bases of Strategy – Develop revised EFE Matrix – Develop revised IFE Matrix Review effectiveness of strategy is important to evaluate how far these strategy matches with our goals, the way are: 1. Competitors’ reaction to strategy 2. Competitors’ change in strategy 3. Competitors’ changes in strengths and weaknesses 4. Reasons for competitors’ strategic change 5. Reasons for competitors’ successful strategies 6. Competitors’ present market positions and profitability 7. Potential for competitor retaliation 8. Potential for cooperation with competitors b.Measuring Organizational Performance †¢ Comparing expected to actual results †¢ Investigating deviations from plan †¢ Evaluating individual performance †¢ Progress toward stated objectives

Tactics And Targets Of Revolutionary Terrorism Politics Essay

Tactics And Targets Of Revolutionary Terrorism Politics Essay Revolutionary terrorism is a phenomenon that has affected much of the world since the beginning of the 20th century. This essay will argue that revolutionary terrorism has its roots in revolutionary socialist theory. It is this framework that provides the justifications and rationales for revolutionary terrorist activity. I will begin with an outline of the key concepts of revolutionary thought, as described in the writings of Marx and Engels. Furthermore it will be shown that other key figures, including Vladimir Lenin, Mao Tse-Tung and Marighella have influenced the evolution of revolutionary terrorism in the 20th Century. Secondly, I will outline the tactics employed by revolutionary terrorist groups and the groups and individuals that constitute their targets. They argue that the use of terrorist tactics with the aim of replacing exploitive capitalist governments with an equitable socialist society is in keeping with the fundamental aims of revolutionary socialism. In order to il lustrate the influence of the theory discussed, I will examine the cases of the Italian Red Brigade and the Japanese Red Army. These groups underwent a campaing of terror to facilitate this change. By opting to use terrorism they sought to undermine the legitimacy of their respective governments and agitate for a popular uprising. In order to understand the justficications that revolutionary terrorists have had for the use of terrorist activity, it is necessary to look at a series of events that took place in the 20th century. The writings of Marx and Engels are key. Marxist thought holds that the great inequalities that exist in the world in terms of the uneven distribution of wealth, power and land are due to the oppression of the working classes by the wealthy bourgeoise. Marx contends that a fundamental change of government must occur to achieve social, economic and political equality. His vision of an equitable socialist society will take place only after the advent of revolution, the overthrow of the bourgeoise by the proletariat. Central to Marxist thought is a call to arms of the masses. It is this call to arms that is central in revolutionary terrorists rationales for the use of political violence. Although Marx was personally opposed to terrorist violence as a means of achieving his socialist vison, further developments of the 20th century can be seen as instrumental in the evolution of revolutionary terrorist rationale. 1917 saw the Russian revolution and the succesful creation of a communist government. The progression of the socialist cause in other countries around the world however stagnated. This was partly due to the repression of leftist movements in liberal states around the world. Soviet Leader of the time Vladimir Lenin criticised socialist leadership for their passivity and their lack of militancy in bringing about revolution. Lenins solution to the problem came in the form of the concept of the Vanguard. He proposed the creation of an elite militant group to create the circumstances in which a popular uprising could occur. Mao Tse-Tungs use of guerilla warfare in his fight against the Chinese nationalists was inspired greatly by Leninist thought. The Chinese Red Army acted as the vanguard of the socialist cause and succesfully radicalised the population, which was key to their eventual victory and ascent to power. By the 1960s The lack of success once again in bringing about the revolution led to leftist thinkers turning to even more violent and militant means to achieve their political aims. The contribution of Brazilian marxist and writer at this point in time was undeniable. In his most famous work the Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla of 1969, he provides advice on how to overthrow an authoritarian regime to bring about revolution. Among the key messages of his writings is that of armed propoganda. He argues that the use of violence and terrorism is an important tool for those seeking to achieve socialism. In his book he describes terrorism as a weapon the revolutionary can never relinquish. The use of terrorist tactics in conflicts in South America became a source of inspiration for leftist groups in Europe and other parts of the world. During the 1960s and 1970s the vast majority of developed countries experienced attacks from revolutio nary terrorists. Thus, the inherent inequality that exists in a capitalist society can be seen as the primary justification that revolutionary terrorists have for the use of terrorist acts to achieve their goal of a socialist society. Among the most well known and most fatal revolutionary terrorist groups was that of the Italian Red Brigade. Founded in 1970 by far left-wing students, the Red Brigades considered the Italian government of the 1960s and 1970s to be a contemporary version of the Fascist Italy of the 1940s. The members were particularly critical of the political and economic institutions of the Italian state. In their 1975 manifesto they state their goal as a concentrated strike against the heart of the state, becasuse the state is an imperialist collection of multinational corporations. The Red Brigades aimed to replicate the socialism of Lenins Soviet Union. They justified their violent acts arguing that they operated within a coherent intellectual tradition and considered themselves the vanguard of the Italian proletariat. The militant leftist group of the Japanese Red Army were established in 1969 and advocated imminent socialist revolution. They differed from their Italian counterparts in their en gaging in terrorist activity primarily on foreign soil. This was due mainly to the fact that the autocratic Japanese regime was very effective in stamping out leftist dissidence. The stated aims of the JRA were to overthrow the Japanese government and monarch and start a world revoloution. Often cooperating with other international leftists groups, the JRA were a well organised and methodical terrorist group. Tactics The tactics utilised by revolutionary terrorist groups are in keeping with the fundamental aims of revolutionary socialist theory. Among the tactics adopted by such groups include; armed robbery to gain resources and weapons for their cause, kidnappings, assasinations, indiscriminate attacks of civilians in public places, hijacking and the taking of hostages. Revolutionary terroists have two key aims that they wish to achieve through their use of terrorist tactics. The first of these is to undermine the legitimacy of the existing regime. By undertaking a series of terrorist acts against both civilian and official targets, revolutionary terrorist groups hope to upset the societal framework on which civilans depend and trust. A successful campaign of terrorist acts will call into question the competence of the government which fails to complete its fundamental responsibility of protecting its people. It is hoped that the resulting decrease of legitimacy in the eyes of the people will b ring about popular discontent and a desire for political change. In this situation the dissidents would have the opportunity to inherit power and implement political, social and economic changes. The second main aim of dissidents is to provoke governments to be repressive. This approach is rooted in the concepts developed by Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci. Gramsci contendeds that capitalist states engage in deliberate deception of their working classes in order to preserve the status quo. His concept of hegemonic false consciousness holds that states deliberately hide their repressive and authoritarian nature and distract the population to prevent it from taking part in revolutionary activity. In the process of attempting to deal with the threat of terrorist activity and counter the destabalising effects on society, a government will tend to decrease the rights of the population. In doing so the true nature of the state would be revealed and would be opposed by the people. This str ategy of agitational terror was utilised to great effect by the Italian Red Brigades. The Red Brigades also performed a number of bank robberies, which served both to fund their cause. Undertook kidnappings of key political and business leaders. Another method they employed to attack the system was that of kneecapping, which involved shooting both knees of a target in order to cripple them. In the 1977 trial of captured Red Brigade members disrupted proceedings by assasinating a judge and members of Given the Japanese Red Armys inability to operate within Japan, the group Hopes of terrorists is that they will provoke the government to be repressive. In its attempts to deal with the threat of terrorists, government will become more repressive, they will restrict the rights of the population. this repression will make the masses see the true colours of the regime, this will then spark a popular revolt, or at least undermine popular support for the regime. This provocation of hope to destabilise the state, because if the government is unable to deal with the threat of terrorists and support its people, the support for the government will dissappear. The competence of the government is called into question, and thus its legitimacy. Popular discontent could then bring about change, and in this situation the dissidents would have the opportunity to gain power and then implement changes. The intended effect of terrorist strategies include armed robbery: to gain weapons and resources for the cause. kidnapping, assasinations, indiscriminate attacks in public places. kidnapping for the purpose of coercive bargaining. hijacking of aeroplanes, taking hostages. revolutionary terrorists advertise their cause. Carlos Marighella: concept of coercive bargaining. kidnapping of businessmen or prominent figures, demand the settlement of labour disputes or distribution of goods to the poor, or demanding release of political prisoners. Assassinaton: by snipers, letter bombs, car bombs etc. undertake campaigns of assassinations. sometimes also coordinate this with industrial action.. Indiscriminate attacks in public places: Firing randomly of machine guns into crowds of Israeli civilians in 1972 at Lydda Airport by Japanese group sponsored by Palestinian radical exiles. Targets Distinction between audience and the targets of the attacks themselves. The value of terrorism to revolutionary groups lies in its pyschological effectiveness. The intention is to generate a psychological response among the people, which varies from fear to sympathy or admiration of the cause. It is the hope that these emotional responses will influence political behaviour and further the chances of success for the revolution. The main audience is therefore the civilian population. targets are selected often as they are symbols, or represent something. Terrorism affects the social structure as well as the individual; it upsets the framework of precepts and images which members of society depend on and trust. Since no one longer knows what sort of behaviour to expect from other members of society, the system is disoriented. hopes to destabilise the ruling power as its people dont have faith in its ability to protect them, thus diminishing their legitimacy in the eyes of the people. (Thornton, revolutionary terrorism expert) Revolutionary terrorists are not pshychopaths, they are dedicated individuals operating within a coherent intellectual tradition. They do not have the capability to meet established military forces head on in battle, use terrorist tactics The red brigades -Drew on Marxist/Leninist writings. What are the elements/features of socialist thought which have provided terrorists with justifications for terrorist action? What are the ethical justifications for terrorism within revolutionary socialist thought? terrorism as a means/vehicle to overcoming exploitive, repressive capitalist societies. The appeal of marxism in the past is clear. Class inequality, vision of the creation of a communist utopia. Seeking a more equitable distribution of power and wealth. concept of armed propoganda by Carlos Marighella. The terrorists were to bring about the circumstances in which the popular uprising would occur catalysts for change agitational terror. premeditated political strategy. Brainstorming/ notes. In order to understand the justifications of revolutionary terrorism it is necessary to investigate the Marxist ideas in which revolutionary violence is based. Social and political change. Marxist concept of class inequality needs to be rectified. Marxist vision of a communist state/ society, in which there is social, economic and political equality. (economic inequality, inequitable access of resources) Struggle between classes Struggle driven by ownership of means of production End point of history/ goal is communism The generator of this social change is class struggle (tyranny of bourgeoise). The bourgeoise (the owners of means of production) and the proletariat (workers). Marx predicts the eventual clash of these classes, with the prediction that the proletariat will be the victors. An appealing/ utopian political vision, something worth fighting for. The communist manifesto (conveys basic ideas of communism, simply written to appeal to proletariat). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. So who is going to bring about this change? Who is going to be the vehicle for change? Communists openly declare their aims: The communists disdain to conceal their views and aims. They openly declare that their aims can be attained only by the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at a communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Proletarians of all countries, unite! (Marx and Engels 1848). Key message is that in order to make this transition happen, proletariat needs to fight. Lenin: wrote pamphlet What is to be done, as overthrow of bourgeoise had not yet been achieved as predicted by Marx. Came up with concept of the Vanguard. Aimed to accelerate revolution. Blamed the lack of change on the passivity of the leadership, that socialist leaders had been to compromising in their dealings with liberal states. He criticised the passivity of the masses. Solution: the vanguard. the creation of a committed and militant group, who would forge ahead, even if the conditions arent yet perfect for revolution, accelerating history to bring about the dictatorship of the proletariat and an eventual communist society. (from lecture slides). Because of the success of the Russian revolution of 1917, liberal democracies were able to prevent this happening again in their own countries. Different tactic had to be adopted in order for communism to be realised. Must be a more militant approach, an army needs to be built to liberate the proletariat. (good example of maoist china. Utilised guerrilla warfare to bring about revolution. Maos book on guerrilla warfare. For mao, guerrilla warfare is means of radicalising the population. Won hearts and minds of people. A move from a political vanguard to a guerrilla vanguard. Eventually to terrorist vanguard. Concept of the vanguard was central to the thinking of revolutionary terrorists of the 1960s and 1970s. Problem of the 1960s was that revolution seemed to stall againà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ explanation for this was false consciousness. The reason that the proletariat had not yet risen up to bring about the revolution. Antonio Gramsci, Italian Marxist. False consciousness argument is that through media, advertising, books, novels etc.. the bourgeoisie class convince the oppressed proletariat that their life is not so bad. They distract the people from realising that their real place is in revolution. Introduces concept of hegemonic false consciousness, makes people desire what is not really in their interests. The way to educate the masses, to neutralise the hegemonic discourses which seduced and distracted the people, is to shock them. Arguments of Carlos Marighellas: (wrote The minimanual of the urban guerrilla). That terrorism is an important tool for revolutionaries. Armed propaganda, using violence to gain attention to the cause. A way of cutting through false consciousness. Provokes the liberal state to be repressive and thus expose its true face as a fascist dictator. Terrorism is used as a means of mobilising the masses to act. Armed propaganda. Role is to fight, to keep up the cause, to remind people that communism is still a realisable dream. Keeping alive the revolutionary dream. (marighellas argument). Examples: Japanese Red Army, pro Palestinian Red Army Faction. Italian Red Brigades: Antonio Negri. Definition revolutionary terrorism: Revolutionary terrorism is a part of insurgent strategy in the context of internal warfare or revolution: the attempt to seize political power from the established regime of a state, if successful causing fundamental political and social change.

The Contrast of Character Between Cleopatra and Octavia Essay -- Compa

Abstract Between the characters of Octavia and Cleopatra there exists a "moral contrast" (Bree 110) -a conflict of Roman ideals and Cleopatra's foreignness. Throughout the tradition of Cleopatra, authors, including Plutarch, Shakespeare, Dryden, and Fielding, as well as filmmakers such as Mankiewicz, have separated Cleopatra from Rome and Octavia because of her combination of political power and sexuality: "The notion of Cleopatra that we have inherited identifies her primarily as being the adversary, the Other. Her otherness is twofold. She is an Oriental, and she is a woman†¦" (Hughes-Hallett 4). If Cleopatra represents the 'Other', then Octavia exemplifies Rome itself. She embodies all of the characteristics of a proper Roman wife: beauty, grace, wisdom, and above all obedience to her husband. Octavia is Antony's celebrated wife throughout the literature although their relationship is dispassionate, while Cleopatra's "otherness" prevents her from attaining the respectable title of Ant ony's wife despite their love. Octavia acts as a character foil for Cleopatra, highlighting Cleopatra's foreign nature and her sexuality, which the Romans find unattractive and unacceptable in the character of a woman. Plutarch: The Life of Marcus Antonius I begin my study of the comparison of Cleopatra and Octavia with Plutarch's The Life of Marcus Antonius, a so-called "historical text." Although Plutarch's writing is perhaps our most trusted source on Cleopatra, his "factual" manuscript is by no means unbiased. Plutarch, as we will see with Shakespeare, Mankiewicz, Dryden, and Fielding in the ensuing pages, presents Cleopatra as the opposite of Octavia. While Octavia represents the Roman ideal of a woman, Cleopatra is a self-seeking Egyp... ...2013. Web. 26 June 2015. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2062 Fielding, Sarah. The Lives of Cleopatra and Octavia. Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2010. Web. 19 June 2015. https://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/studies_in_english_literature/v039/39.3gadeken.html Hughes-Hallett, Lucy. Cleopatra: histories, dreams, and distortions. New York: Harpercollins, 1991. Loomba, Ania. Gender, race, Renaissance drama. Oxford University Press, 1992. Web. 9 June 2015. http://www.jstor.org/stable/438273?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents Plutarch. The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans. Excerpts from "The Life of Marcus Antonius." Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. Gutenberg.org Web. 14 June 2015. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/674 Shakespeare, William. Antony and Cleopatra. Ed. Barbara A. Mowat, and Ed. Paul Werstine. Simon & Schuster, 2005 The Contrast of Character Between Cleopatra and Octavia Essay -- Compa Abstract Between the characters of Octavia and Cleopatra there exists a "moral contrast" (Bree 110) -a conflict of Roman ideals and Cleopatra's foreignness. Throughout the tradition of Cleopatra, authors, including Plutarch, Shakespeare, Dryden, and Fielding, as well as filmmakers such as Mankiewicz, have separated Cleopatra from Rome and Octavia because of her combination of political power and sexuality: "The notion of Cleopatra that we have inherited identifies her primarily as being the adversary, the Other. Her otherness is twofold. She is an Oriental, and she is a woman†¦" (Hughes-Hallett 4). If Cleopatra represents the 'Other', then Octavia exemplifies Rome itself. She embodies all of the characteristics of a proper Roman wife: beauty, grace, wisdom, and above all obedience to her husband. Octavia is Antony's celebrated wife throughout the literature although their relationship is dispassionate, while Cleopatra's "otherness" prevents her from attaining the respectable title of Ant ony's wife despite their love. Octavia acts as a character foil for Cleopatra, highlighting Cleopatra's foreign nature and her sexuality, which the Romans find unattractive and unacceptable in the character of a woman. Plutarch: The Life of Marcus Antonius I begin my study of the comparison of Cleopatra and Octavia with Plutarch's The Life of Marcus Antonius, a so-called "historical text." Although Plutarch's writing is perhaps our most trusted source on Cleopatra, his "factual" manuscript is by no means unbiased. Plutarch, as we will see with Shakespeare, Mankiewicz, Dryden, and Fielding in the ensuing pages, presents Cleopatra as the opposite of Octavia. While Octavia represents the Roman ideal of a woman, Cleopatra is a self-seeking Egyp... ...2013. Web. 26 June 2015. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/2062 Fielding, Sarah. The Lives of Cleopatra and Octavia. Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2010. Web. 19 June 2015. https://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/studies_in_english_literature/v039/39.3gadeken.html Hughes-Hallett, Lucy. Cleopatra: histories, dreams, and distortions. New York: Harpercollins, 1991. Loomba, Ania. Gender, race, Renaissance drama. Oxford University Press, 1992. Web. 9 June 2015. http://www.jstor.org/stable/438273?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents Plutarch. The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans. Excerpts from "The Life of Marcus Antonius." Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. Gutenberg.org Web. 14 June 2015. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/674 Shakespeare, William. Antony and Cleopatra. Ed. Barbara A. Mowat, and Ed. Paul Werstine. Simon & Schuster, 2005

Rosalind and the Masks in Shakespeares As You Like It :: Shakespeare As You Like It Essays

Rosalind and the Masks In this essay I would like to focus on Rosalind's - or rather Ganymede's - preoccupation with the outward show of things. Whether this is a result of her cross-dressing, the reason for the same, or the playwright's way of revealing his presence is not as yet clear to me, but Rosalind's constant insistence on the truth of masks and on the other hand her readiness to doubt this same truth fascinates me. When she decides to dress up as a boy, Rosalind seems to think a mannish outside sufficient to convince the world at large (I.iii.111-118). She is "more than common tall" and therefore all she needs is a "gallant curtle-axe", a "boar spear" and a "swashing and a martial outside" to hide her feminine anxiousness. Taking it for granted that noone will have the hunch to look beyond her male costume, she reasons that since cowardly men are able to hide these feminine qualities, she should be able to pass off as a man, simply by behaving mannishly. Being so totally dependent on her own disguise not being found out, it is funny how she proceeds to doubt anyone who does not put on an outward show fitting to their claims to feeling. The first to be put on the stand in this fashion is Orlando. As Ganymede Rosalind refuses to accept Orlando's claim to being the desperate author of the love-verses (s)he has found hanging on the trees on the grounds that he has no visible marks of love upon him. A lean cheek, which you have not; a blue eye and sunken, which you have not; an unquestionable spirit, which you have not; a beard neglected, which you have not (...) Then your hose should be ungartered, your bonnet unbanded, your sleeve unbuttoned, your shoe untied, and everything about you demonstrating careless desolation. (III.ii.363-371) He is, in other words, not exactly the picture of the despairing suitor. Neither does Jaques measure up to Rosalind's expectations of the melancholy traveller. She greets him with a "they say you are" (IV.i.3), and sends him off with the order of: Look you lisp, and wear strange suits; disable all the benefits of your own country; be out of love with your nativity, and almost chide God for making that countenance you are; or I will scarce think you have swam in a gondola.